Ancient Vedic Period: What Books and Burials Tell us

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                                           Raunak Prasad 

In a vast country like India, with varied topography and different climatic conditions, it is very difficult to look for a uniform pattern of culture in all parts of the country and in any period of her long journey through the ages. For Identifying and examining culture, we have to look at the ancient Indian Culture. Let's look at our main features of the Vedic Culture and then we shall take up the story of the Chalcolithic settlements.

The Vedic Literature: Much of the knowledge about the Aryans is derived from the Vedic literature comprising mainly the Vedas and the two Great Epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The Vedas: The term 'Veda' comes from the root 'vid' which means wisdom or knowledge. The knowledge of the Aryans is contained in the four fedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads, etc. This sacred literature of the Aryans is known as the Vedic Literature.

 The chief source of information-Rigveda 

The Vedas are four in number the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda. They are the oldest and the most sacred books of the Aryans. It is believed that they were revealed by God to the Rishis. The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas and contains 1028 hymns in praise of the gods and goddesses. The Samaveda contains hymns to be sung by a special class of priests in Soma sacrifice. The Yajurveda contains hymns that are to be followed in an ordinary sacrifice. The Atharvaveda is a collection of songs, spells, magical charms for the evil spirits, etc. These Vedas form the most important sources of information about the political, social, economic and religious life of the Aryans.

Besides the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads also form a part of the early Vedic literature. The Brahmanas are commentaries on the Vedic hymns in simple prose. The Aranyakas were meant for the hermits who lived in forests. The Upanishads deal with the Indian I philosophy and evolved theories of Karma, Maya and Mukti.

The Two Great Epics: The Ramayana and the  Mahabharata: 

There is no denying the fact that a great variety of literature comprising the Sutras, the Vedangas, the Upanishads etc. throw a good deal of light on the later Vedic period. But there is none that can be compared with the two Great Epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata respect.

It is the general belief that the Ramayana was originally composed by Rishi Valmiki in Sanskrit. But the one composed by Goswami Tulsidas in Hindi is the most popular. It is known as Ramacharita Manas The Ramayana, in its present form, contains about 24,000 verses (Slokas) and has seven cantos.

The Mahabharata at present contains about 1, 00, 000 ''slokas' or verses and is divided into eighteen books with the Harivamsa' attached to it at the end as supplement. There is a general belief that this great work was compiled by Rishi Vyasa,

How the Historians Study the Rigveda ?

It was a challenging situation for historians to read and understand the rigvedas, special sanskrit scholars were employed by historians. 

Also, The archaeologists and historians study the past history by using the material remains and the written sources. They make use of both the sources to explain the lives of the people who lived ages long ago. Among the written sources the Rigveda occupies an important place. It contains 1028 hymns, all sung in prayer of gods and goddesses or different objects of nature. Some of the hymns of the Rigvedas are in the form of dialogues. In one such hymn there is a dialogue between Vishwamitra (a renowned sage) and two rivers Beas and Sutlej that were worshipped as goddesses. This hymn translated in English goes like this:

"Vishvamitra: O rivers, come down from the mountains like two swift horses, like two shining cows that lick their calves.

You move like chariots to the sea, through the power of Indra. You are full of water and wish to unite with one another. 

The rivers: We, who are full of water, move along the path the gods have made for us. Once we c start flowing we cannot be stopped. Why do you pray to us, o sage?

Vishvamitra : O sisters, please listen to me, the singer who has come from a distance with his chariots and carts. Let your waters not rise above our

axles, so that we can cross safely. The rivers: We will listen to your prayers so that you can cross safely."

Historians point out that this hymn was composed in the area where these rivers flow. They also suggest that the sage lived in a society where horses and cows were valued animals. That is why the rivers are compared to horses and cows.

Remember there are a number of other rivers as well in the Rigveda like those of the Indus and its tributaries and the Saraswati. But, strangely enough, the Ganga and the Yamuna are mentioned only once which indicates that the Aryans in the Rigvedic times had not as yet advanced in the Gangetic Valley.

But aren't you curious to know, what the vedas tell us. Let's find out.

                          WHAT DO THE VEDAS TELL US?

As mentioned above, the Vedas tell us a lot about the Vedic civilisation: the arrival of the Aryans in India, their early settlements, their social, religious, economic and political life.

One of the most important Iron Age civilisations was the Aryan civilisation which flourished in India.

The Aryans first settled in the area known as Sapta Sindhu' the land near seven rivers - the Indus and its tributaries.

The Aryans and Their Arrival in India: It is said that the Aryans were one of the civilised and cultured races of the world. They were tall and fair complexioned people with sharp features. They had a strong physique. Most of the Indians, Persians and even the English, the Germans, the Spanish and the French pride themselves as the true descendants of the Aryans. That is why they consider themselves superior to any other race.

Their occupation of India is regarded as one of the most momentous events in the history of India. They came to India during the second millennium B.C. This age is called the Vedic Age because much of the knowledge about this period is derived from the Vedic texts, especially the Vedas.

Historians and scholars have put forward different views regarding the original home of the Aryans. While some of them think that they were the original inhabitants of India, others regard them as invaders who destroyed the superior civilisation of the original inhabitants whom they drove beyond the Vindhyas. But now most of the historians agree that the original home of Aryans was in Central Asia and in regions around the Caspian Sea. It was from this region that groups of these illustrious people migrated to various countries of Europe and Asia. They were probably forced by the shortage of food and fodder to leave their home and seek settlement in other lands. Those groups of the Aryans, who came to India, are called the Indo-Aryan'.

Earlier the Aryans were nomadic but later on they settled down in one place. The Rigveda refers to the importance of cows and also that the farmers of this period had a fair idea about the seasons of farming. The plough is also mentioned in the Rigveda.

Main Features of Their Settlements: The Aryans first crossed the North-West passes and then settled in the area of modern Punjab, Sind and North-West Frontier Province. But this was not an easy task because they had to face the Dravidians. These people fought against the Aryans at every step and thus checked their advance for a long time. At this time the Aryans were still living in that area which came to be known as Sapta-Sindhu. This age is known as the "Early Vedic Age" in the history of India.

Iron was discovered during this time. A number of tools, weapons and implements were made of iron.

Later on, the Aryans moved east and north and occupied the area now represented by U.P., Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of Northern India. They gave the name "Aryavarta" to this region which they conquered after a struggle of thousands of years (2500 B.C. -700 B.C.). This period, when the Aryans settled in the Gangetic Valley, is known as the "Later Vedic Period". It was during this period that the Aryans had to fight another battle (of the Mahabharata). But now, the Aryans had no fear of the resistance the native tribes whom they calle "Dasyus".

                      THE VEDIC CULTURE AND CIVILISATION

From the Vedic literature we can form an idea of the Vedic culture and civilisation.

Development of Society or Social Life of the Aryans: The Aryans led a very simple life. They lived in villages which were composed of many families. The head of the family was called a 'Grihapati'. Their families were patriarchal, or we can say that the eldest male member used to be the head of the family. He exercised full authority over all the members of the family. Even after marriage, the sons and grandsons used to live in the same family. It means there was a joint family system.

The Aryans lived in tribes and spoke Sanskrit which is still extant in India.

In the Rigvedic period, women enjoyed a respectable position in the society. They used to ge high education. There was no purdah system and child marriage was unknown. Widows were allowed to remarry. No function was considered complet without women's participation.

During the Vedic period, there were four classe of people (varnas) - the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, th Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Brahmins were pries and teachers. The Kshatriyas were rulers am warriors. The Vaishyas were the farmers, traders and craftsman. The Shudras did menial jobs and were meant to serve the three higher Varnas - Brahmins and Vaishyas. Kshatriyas

During the early Vedic period, gods were classified according to the places they lived in, i.e. sky, mid air and earth. The gods of sky were Mitra and Varuna, the gods of mid-air were Indra and Maruts and the gods of the earth were Agni and Soma. All these gods and goddesses were supposed to be different forms of one Supreme God.

The Aryans had introduced a strict code of discipline in their life, which they had divided into four well defined parts. The whole span of life was supposed to be a hundred years, of which the first twenty-five years were to be spent in a Gurukul where students were taught by learned Brahmins in various arts of life and religion. This stage of life was called Brahmacharya The next stage, called the Grihastha Ashrama, started when a man got married and raised a family. During this stage, he was supposed to work hard and support not only his own family but also his parents and other dependants. Vanaprastha or the age of virtual retirement from worldly life started at the age S of fifty which was followed by the last stage of life called the Sanyas or the stage of total renunciation to lead a life of service and preaching.

Development of Religion or Religious Life of the Aryans 

Aryans: The Aryans worshipped different forces of Nature like Indra (or the God of Rain and Thunder), Vive (Wind), Agni (Fire), Surya (Sun), etc. Hymns in praise of all the above gods are found in abundance in the Rigveda. The Aryans, however, believed that above all these gods there is a Supreme God. The Avans had made no temples, nor had they made any idols. They chanted hymns and performed their worship in the open. They daily performed Yajnas or sacrifices to please their Gods so that they might bestow blessings on them.

Economic Life of the Aryans: The Aryans led (e a rural life. Their main occupations were cattle rearing and agriculture. Their main agricultural products were wheat, barley, rice, cotton and oil seeds. They domesticated animals like cows, bulls, horses, sheep, etc. The Aryans were, however, not indifferent to trade. Mostly, things were exchanged by barter system. However, later on, coins also became prevalent. To meet the daily needs, certain crafts and industries also flourished. There were carpenters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, potters and physicians etc. to meet the daily needs of the people.

Political Structure of the Aryans: The Aryans were divided into small tribes or clans which often used to fight with each other and also with the indigenous people. Generally, each tribe had its own ruler known as the 'Rajan'. He was originally elected because of his bravery and wisdom but later on kingship became hereditary. But still there were popular assemblies like the Sabha' and the Samiti' to guide the ruler. The Samiti was regarded as the General Assembly while Sabha was regarded as the Council of Elders, the selected people of the tribe. The king was assisted by a number of ministers in the discharge of his duties. The Purohita' and the Senani" were the most important. The 'Purohita' was the religious advisor of the king while 'Senani' was the leader of the army. These ministers were men of high character and thus exercised a sort of check on the autocracy of the ruler.

The Arvans introduced the horse in India. They brought it from Central Asia.

The Aryans were good fighters. They used to fight on the horse-back or on chariots. Bows and arrows, swords, lances, spears, axes etc. were the chief weapons of offence while helmets, arm-guards, metal plates and coat of armour were the chief weapons of defence.

  A Contemporary Chalcolithic Settlement(Overview) 

While the Rigveda was being compiled in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent, other developments, were taking place elsewhere in the ry, country. Better you should have a look at some of them.

After the Neolithic Age (c. 10,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C.) began the so-called Chalcolithic Age led (c. 4000 B.C. to 2000 B.C.) when man began to attle use copper along with tiny stone implements.  Because of the use of stone side by side with copper this age is sometimes known as the stone- copper age.

Chronologically, they are several sites of the Chalcolithic settlements in India. Archaeologist have tried to prove that some of the Chalcolithic settlements are pre-Harappan, others are contemporeries of the Harappan culture and still others are post-Harappan. But one thing is very clear that the Chalcolithic settlements were quite different from the Harappan settlements. The Chalcolithic settlements were rural, while Harappan settlements were primarily urban settlements. Secondly, the Chalcolithic people had not as yet learnt to mix copper with zinc so as to produce bronze but the Harappan people knew how to produce bronze. They also had learnt to use it in a far better way than the Chalcolithic people. Copper was found in the Khetri mines of Rajasthan. The Chalcolithic people could not make full use of animals, but the Harappan people could make the full use of animals. Anyhow, the Chalcolithic people had greatly improved their lives as compared to the Neolithic people. The God of the Chalcolithic people resembles Hindu God Ganesha - He can be referred to as proto-Ganesha.

Leaving apart the north-eastern parts of India, Chalcolithic sites have been found in all parts of India. The most important are, however, the following:

1. Ahar, Nagda, Balathal and Gilund areas in Rajasthan.

2. Jorwe, Prakash, Chandoli, Songaon, Daimabad, Inamgaon, Nevasa etc. sites all in modern Maharashtra.

3. Gujarra and Navdatoli in Madhya Pradesh. 

4. Kausambi in U.P.

5. Maski and Brahmgiri in Karnataka. 

6. Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu.

The Megaliths

One of the common features of all the above Chalcolithic settlements was that they erected big stones called megaliths to mark their burial sites. Such a practice was prevalent throughout the Deccan, South India, in the north west and Kashmir about 3000 years ago.

A circle of stone boulders or a single large stone standing on the ground indicates that these are burials. All these burials have one common feature. Along with the dead were also buried in

some distinctive pots, called by archaeologists as Black and Red Ware. In certain other burials were found a variety of things such as tools and weapons of iron, skeletons of horse, horse equipments and different varieties of gold and stone ornaments. Such burials remind us of the pyramids of Egypt where different varieties of articles were found buried with their rulers called Pharaoh.

This was just an overview about how chalcolithic settlements sounds, sufficient information is provided for the vedic culture and how it flourished in India. This marks the end of the this post, we welcone your suggestions and comments.